The study team collected and linked five academic years of student-level administrative data from Pittsburgh Public Schools (PPS), Propel Schools, and the Allegheny County Department of Human Services (DHS). The sample included the full population of students enrolled in each local education agency in 2015/16 or 2016/17, and each entity provided any data available on those students for 2012/13–2016/17. The descriptive analyses used data from the two most recent years—considered the “outcome years” for which academic problems are predicted— and the predictive analyses included data from the full five-year period.